New Habit - Ilse Bing and Henri Cartier-Bresson’s Photographs of Nuns
Essay Written in conjunction with an exhibition on the Perry Photography Collection Exhibition at Booth Family Center for Special Collections at Georgetown University
In American and European visual culture, nuns are a potent symbol of religion. From popular children’s book Madeline (1939) to The Sound of Music (1956) the women in black and white cloaks have stood sentinel reminders of absolute dedication to faith. However, their hypervisual presence ironically originates from a place of invisibility. To think of nuns is to think of not just the black and white habit, but it is also to think of cloisters. When taking their vows, nuns traditionally isolated themselves from the world. When they received a rare visitor, they were separated by a grill or barrier, obstructing any invasion into their lives. They could not stay cloistered and starting in the 19th century many convents opened their doors for free passage in and out. It was only until the 20th century that nuns started participating in evangelizing in Europe and leaving the convent walls. In the dawn of the Second Vatican Council (1962), the role of Nuns in modern society was debated and differed from each diocese. The council determined that nuns should truly engage with the troubles of the world, in order to better serve God. These debates brought a significant amount of attention to the way nuns navigate daily life in and beyond the convent walls. At the same time, French street photographers dealt with social change on an unprecedented scale, from industrial to political revolutions. The Queen of Leica, Ilse Bing, and Henri Cartier-Bresson’s photographs of nuns engage with the changing nature of nuns in the first half of the twentieth century and the struggle of the artists to conserve either the dying old traditions in the face of modernism. In the 1930s, Ilse Bing’s photographs of nuns represent the nuns opening the walls of the convent to humanity while Cartier-Bresson’s 1950-60s photographs represent the nuns in the world.
Nuns in Early Photography
The religious habit of nuns is incredibly striking. Beyond the stark black and white robes, the choice of veiling by different institutions plays heavily into their representation in photography. As early as the fifth century, nuns started wearing black. Black robes were not only easier to keep clean but indicated mourning and sobriety. Moralist writers specifically championed this movement towards black because of complaints about the nuns with noble ancestry who were dressing in the latest fashions. Thus, the habit of long black robes and the white wimple or coif became standard for nuns. 1 The habit was subject to much controversy. During the French Revolution, revolutionaries prohibited nuns from wearing their habit. Some nuns chose to wear their habits to the guillotine. 2
Across the pond, America as a majority protestant nation also had its sordid history with nuns. In New England, it was not unheard of for Anti-Catholic mobs to threaten to burn down convents. This anti-Catholic hostility prevented many nuns from wearing habits in public until the Civil War. 3 During the Civil War, Catholic nuns served as nurses in their habits causing much controversy with the Protestant nurses and to the confusion of many soldiers who had never met Catholics let alone nuns before. Lincoln wrote after visiting the Stanton Hospital, that “of all the forms of charity and benevolence seen in the crowded wards those of the Catholic sisters were among the most efficient”.4 The C.M. Bell Firm in Washington D.C, started by local civil war photographer Charles Milton Bell, took some of the earliest American portraits of nuns. The photographer shows nuns in isolation. The anonymous nun (figure 1) carries on her person two crosses, one around her neck and the other on a rosary hanging from her waist. She also holds a book close to her chest, perhaps the bible. Through her stare, she boldly challenges the photographer. The photographer and subject are keeping a distance from each other. Sister Helen’s portrait (figure 2) is cropped a three-quarter’s length, yet is no more intimate. She crosses her arms underneath her sleeves and is turned slightly away from the photographer. While seemingly cold demeanor was normal for late nineteenth and early twentieth-century photographs, these women show slight distrust and gradual acceptance of nuns in the modern world. No longer cloistered, they participate in the political atmosphere yet still hold themselves aloof to the photographer.
Fig 1. [Nun] (between February 1901 and December 1903), C.M. Bell Firm, Library of Congress
Fig 2. Helen, Sister [nun] (between 1873 and ca. 1916), C.M. Bell Firm, Library of Congress
Ilse Bing
Ilse Bing was one of the many photographs who was fascinated by the life of early 20th century Nuns. Born to a Jewish family in Germany, Bing started her career pursuing her Ph.D. in Art History at the University of Frankfurt. Her studies in German Baroque-inspired her to pursue a doctoral dissertation on the eighteenth-century architect Friedrich Gilly. She described Gilly as “feeling for infinite space in all directions” and that he was capable of creating “frozen” motion.5 During a university trip to Switzerland in 1929, she brought her new Leica. She visited a private gallery and saw Van Gogh’s Night Cafe. She was fascinated by the evocative power of the painting and stated that at that moment she “knew there and then that I wanted to create art history too, and not just study it”. From that point on she abandoned her dissertation and took up photography.6
Bing made a name for herself photographing objects in movement such as the cancan dancers’ petticoats or the geometric iron lines on French modernist architecture. However, she still maintained her studies of female Christianity throughout her career. Bing’s first contribution to the press was of a reproduction of a terracotta bust of the Madonna by the Renaissance artist Andrea Della Robbia.7 In 1935, Bing created a series of photographs titled Les Bonnes Soeurs, Angers Clinique (the good sisters, Angers Clinique). The origin of this series of nuns is unclear. As a Jewish woman, it is unlikely that she had any relatives that were nuns and she was granted access through the visitation of a relative. Few publications record her visit to the Angers clinic so it is unclear if this was an assignment or for her own artistic development. Her photographs of the Good Sisters of the Angers Clinique seem more photojournalistic in nature yet are rooted in her early academic tradition of religious subject matter.
Fig 3. Nun Sweeping (1935), Ilse Bing, Georgetown University
Fig 4. Peeling Potatoes (1935), Ilse Bing, Georgetown University
Fig 5. Chateau de Pommery, Reims (1933), Ilse Bing
Fig 6. Chateau de Pommery, Reims (1933), Ilse Bing
These photographs are not just discrete from her popular work because of subject matter. At the time, Bing was experimenting with the film grain through tonal manipulation. Starting in 1934, she was reversing black and white tones in a process called solarization in order to create a halo effect. This was one of the techniques used by surrealist photographers to create an alternate reality effect in their photograph.8 Yet, Bing’s photographs here are incredibly crisp and documentary.
With Nun Sweeping (fig. 3), Bing shows us the daily lives for these nuns. Not only do we see her chores, but also part of the social structure of nuns. The nun from the window above appears to be wearing all white and looks down upon the nun below her wearing darker colors and an apron. Bing perhaps portrays an interaction between a “choir sister” and “lay sister”. In Medieval times when aristocratic nuns entered the monastery, they often brought servants of their own. Thus, two tracts were created for nuns. The “choir sisters” were allowed to be educated and the “lay sisters” were relegated to manual labor.9 The sister in all white may be a choir sister, figuratively and literally she is on a higher realm than the sweeping nun. Bing brings us into the social structure of these nuns. These are similar to her series from two years prior at the Chateau de Pommery in Reims (fig. 5, fig. 6). She was commissioned by an advertising executive to photograph the process of making wine to celebrate the end of Prohibition in the United States.10 Bing highlights the intensive labor involved by both the men and the women. Unlike her photographs of Parisian women, dancing the can-can at the Moulin Rouge, the women at the Chateau seem to be frozen in time and engaged with manual labor of a rural past.
Fig 7. Nun With Telephone (1935), Ilse Bing, Georgetown University
In the same series as Les Bonnes Soeurs, Nun With Telephone (fig. 7) gives an incredibly intimate connection with the sister. Like C.M. Bell’s Sister Helen, Bing’s nun is slightly turned away from the viewer. However, she seems far more at ease with the photographer. She lets Bing into her private world even lets her stay with her while she takes a phone call. Most importantly, the slightly turned profile gives a detailed shot of her cornette. She and the nuns in Nun Sweeping and Peeling Potatoes (fig. 4) wear folded and fluted white cornette that is unique to their convent.
The fascination with white headdresses was not unique to Ilse Bing’s photographs of nuns but also to her series in Holland. The art critic Emmanuel Sougez praised her for capturing the unique Frenchness in photographs. He gave her the title “Queen of Leica” yet in the mid-1930s he started to distance himself from Bing because of her German Jewish heritage. When she and her husband were interned in 1941 by the Vichy government, Sougez declined to respond to her pleas for protection.11She became closer to her other patron, the American writer Hendrik Willem Van Loon. He invited her to his home in Veere a town in the Zeeland province in Holland. Bing reported that she was delighted by the Dutch matrons in traditional gowns and went out to photograph the women in the starched coifs.12 She perhaps was fascinated by the frozen time that these Dutch women lived in and felt that she was experiencing the world of Vincent Van Gogh. Her fascination with Dutch women’s coifs and long modest robes perhaps inspired her to photograph the visually similar nuns in Angers.
Fig 8. Two Women Walking in Front of a Home Veere, Netherlands (1931), Ilse Bing
Fig. 9 Maid sweeping street, Veere, Holland (1931), Ilse Bing
Bing was not the only woman photographer to make the connection with the coifs of Dutch women and nuns. Her American contemporary, Doris Ulmann, made similar connections with the Pennsylvania Dutch women and the nuns in the French territories of New Orleans.
Fig 10. The Minister’s Wife, Ephrata, Pennsylvania Circa (1925-27), Doris Ulmann, Getty Collection
Fig 11. [Nun holding child] (c. 1930), Doris Ulmann, Getty Collection
Fig. 12 [Sister Mary Paul Lewis, a Sister of the Order of the Holy Family, New Orleans] (1931), Doris Ulmann, Getty Collection
Similar to Bing, Ulmann is another unlikely woman to integrate herself with Nuns. She was born to A German-Jewish Father and an American mother in New York city.13 Cultural historian Ann Douglas described Ulmann as being caught between “the dying feminine culture of the Victorian reform movement and the emerging masculine culture of prosperous mass media modernity”.14 Like Bing, Ulmann emerged as a photographer in the transitionary period of the early twentieth century where it felt that the old traditions were giving way. In figure 10, Ulmann photographed a minister’s wife from Ephrata Pennsylvania. The minister was most likely the head of the Dunkard congregation, a subsect of the Old German Baptist Brethren living in Lancaster County. Her austere portrait is reminiscent of Jan van Eyck’s portraits.15 Ullmann highlights the minister’s wife’s customary white cap against the deep dark background. A couple of years later, Ulman worked her way to the South to photograph the nuns she met in New Orleans. In her photograph of a nun with a child (fig. 11), Ulmann emphasizes a different coif. Her coif extends past her face, casting her into partial-shadow. Similar to the minister’s wife, she feels both physically close yet very reserved from Ulmann. Sister Mary Paul Lewis engages with Ulmann more than her other two subjects. A couple of years after photographing the convent of white nuns in New Orleans. In 1931, Ulmann met the Sisters of the Holy Family, the African American Catholic order in New Orleans who adhere to the rule of Saint Augustine. Many found her fascination with these women to be unusual yet Ulmann found that they were similar to the Dunkards whom she had already photographed.16 Sister Mary Paul Lewis cradles her spectacles in her hand and stands in a dignified and restrained manner. While Ulmann undoubtedly has gained private access to the lives of these nuns as Bing had that allows her the physical closeness C.M. Bell was denied, there still remains a level of cloistering between the subject and photographer. Bing’s photographs nuns feel as if they are opening their world to an outsider woman and are part of the trend of French photojournalism, where Ulmann’s photographs seem to hark more on colder American portraiture.
Henri Cartier Bresson
Ilse Bing’s connection to these nuns and their allowance of her to photograph their lives is unusual and in the 1930s it would be far more unattainable for her contemporary Henri Cartier-Bresson. Beyond the priests who would serve mass and give confession to the nuns, most monasteries strictly forbid men from entering. Thus, barring men like Henri-Cartier Bresson from photographing the nuns intimately like Ilse Bing. Cartier-Bresson’s started his photography career a couple of years after Ilse Bing. While Ilse Bing and her husband were interned in Southern France desperately seeking for passage to America, Henri Cartier-Bresson was sent to forced labor in Germany and escaped in 1943 after two failed attempts.17 MoMA believed he had died during the war and began to plan a posthumous exhibition, only to find out he was still alive. Cartier-Bresson felt that part of him had indeed died during the war and began photographing new subjects, documenting the world after the death of World War II. They only found out he was still alive when Cartier-Bresson wrote to them his interest in his posthumous show. It was only after World War II that he started photographing nuns. Just as how the Civil War opened up America to nuns, World War Two resulted that many nuns started experiencing the new waves of modernism and were leaving the convent doors. Thus allowing Henri Cartier-Bresson a subject matter previously denied to him. His photograph Nun in Crowd Below MuralBrussels World Fair (1958) (fig. 13) shows a nun looking out beyond the crowd as if examining this new world
Fig 13. Nun in Crowd Below Mural, Brussels World Fair (1958), Henri Cartier-Bresson, Georgetown
Fig 14. Zurich, Switzerland (1953), Henri Cartier-Bresson
Fig 17. The Annunciation (1490/95), Jean Hey, The Art Institute of Chicago
Fig 18. Chicago (Nuns in Gallery) (no date), Henri-Cartier Bresson, Museum of Fine Arts Boston
Fig 19. Portrait of a Woman with a Prayer Book (1560/70), Bartholomäus Bruyn the Younger, Art Institute of Chicago
Cartier-Bresson started photographing Nuns out in the world. While a lot of his photographs were focused on Nuns escorting children around, there is an interesting subsect of his photography that focuses on nuns in art museums. During one of his visits to Chicago rather in the late 40s or early 50s, he photographed three nuns at The Art Institute of Chicago (fig. 18). By examining the artworks in the gallery, it’s clear that they are in a Northern Renaissance Gallery. On the back wall behind the nuns heads, Jean Hey’s The Annunciation (1490/95) is clearly visible (fig. 17). The Archangel Gabriel has come to visit the Virgin Mary and with them, a dove appears almost halo-like above her head to symbolize how the conception was an act of hearing rather than a physical conception protecting her sacred virginity. The image that the nuns are looking at is harder to see but it appears to be German artist Bartholomäus Bruyn the Younger’s Portrait of a Woman with a Prayer Book (1560/70) (fig. 19). Similar to Henri Cartier-Bresson’s Nuns, the painted woman is dressed in the stark black and white contrast featuring a white color. The central nun is holding a book as well. The largest difference between the nuns and the painted portrait is that of the headdress, where the nuns wear a long flowing black veil, Bartholomäus Bruyn the Younger’s painted woman wears a starch white coif that is closer in style to Ilse Bing’s nuns and women from Holland.
Fig 20. The Dance (1965), Henri Cartier-Bresson
Fig 21. Two nuns watching an Ad Reinhardt painting (1964), Burt Glinn
Fig 22. Godforsaken Art (1958), Frank Martin, Getty Images
Fig 23. Nuns at a Calder Show (1953), Imogen Cunningham
Fig 24. Installation view of an Alexander Calder exhibition at the Frank Perls Gallery (1953), Ann Rosener, Archives of American Art
Henri-Cartier Bresson’s revisited the subject of nuns in an art museum in a very different context. About a decade after he photographed the three nuns in the Institute of Art of Chicago, Cartier-Bresson photographed two Nuns at the Museum of Modern Art in New York (fig. 20). Where the nuns in Chicago were examining Northern Renaissance works with women wearing similar gowns and symbols of chastity and virtue. The MoMA nuns, have ventured into the less familiar and more abstract world of modern art and are contemplating Henri Matisse’s The Dance. Henri Cartier-Bresson and Henri Matisse share more than just a name and a love for the arts. In 1952, Cartier-Bresson published his book Images à la sauvette (the English edition was titled The Decisive Moment), instead of having a seminal photograph for the title, Henri Matisse drew the cover. Cartier-Bresson returns the favor and pays tribute to his friend’s work in this photograph Where the Nuns at the Art Institute of Chicago were deeply engrossed in the older traditional art, the nuns here seem to be less engaged. One of them completely is facing away and staring off in a new direction.
Henri-Cartier Bresson was not the only photographer to start photographing nuns and Modern Art Museums. Just a year before, in 1964, fellow Magnum Photographer Burt Glinn photographed Two nuns watching an Ad Reinhardt painting (fig. 21). The two nuns cloaked in black appear as almost silhouettes in front of an equally dark color monotoned Ad Reinhardt painting. In July of 1958, British Graphic Artist Frank Martin photographed two nuns appearing shocked and appalled at an exhibition of Modern Art that focused on the theme of religion at the Tate Gallery in London (fig. 22). In the background between the two nuns, Bernard Meadows Running Bird Totem can be seen. He titled this photograph, Godforsaken Art. Photographing Nuns in Modern Art spaces was not limited to male photographers. In 1953, Imogen Cunningham photographed Nuns at a Calder Show (1953) (fig. 23) featuring one nun sitting and presumably reading literature on the exhibition the other nun is touchingCalder’s Thirty-Two Discs (1951). Coincidentally, a second and much larger group of nuns visited the same exhibition (fig. 24). Pioneering American Journalist, Ann Rosener, visited the exhibition and photographed a group of sisters joyfully engaging with Calder’s mobiles.
Henri Cartier-Bresson and his contemporaries photographing nuns in modern art museums almost feels like a contradiction, such as seeing a nun on the telephone in the 1930s (fig. 7). Nuns in their traditional habits create a surreal effect with modern objects, art or utilitarian. Frank Martin certainly plays on this idea with his shocked Nuns in Godforsaken Art. But Bresson and other’s photographs of nuns show the changing status of nuns in not just the world, but in the art world. The treatment of nuns in his photography can be traced to the changes made in the early 1930s and was solidified by the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s. Before the twentieth century, many orders were the same style of habit, focusing on long dark swaths of cloth dragging to the floor and with only variation coming in the form of the starched wimples and coifs. By the 1950s, the Catholic Church became wary of the image of the Nuns’ habits. Particularly, Pope Pius XII was concerned that the flowing robes were unhygienic and thought that cleaning the robes would take too long. The dramatic coifs of Bing’s photographs and Bresson’s earlier works (fig. 13, fig. 14) were abandoned in the 1960s as part of the sweeping aesthetic changes made by the Second Vatican Council. Part of the call to modernize the nun aesthetic was to appeal to their target demographic of teenage girls.19 The Second Vatican Council also drew attention to the political active nature of Nuns. American nuns were chastised arrested for protesting against the Vietnam War, such as Sister Corita Kent. Sister Corita Kent, represented with one of her works in the Jacques Lowe Photograph (fig. 25), joined the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary in Los Angeles in 1936. She taught at the Immaculate Heart College and became a well-known artist during the Pop-Art movement in the 1950s and 1960s. While her earlier work had more traditional religious symbols such as images of Mary, her later work focused on world peace specifically in reference to the Vietnam War. Photographers like Jacques Lowe were drawn to the image of the “nun artist”. Her presence in the art world conceivably inspired Cartier-Bresson and his contemporaries to photograph nuns in art museums. Henri-Cartier Bresson’s photographs of nuns highlight the rapid change between the old war and the new world after World War Two and the Second Vatican Council.
Fig. 25 Nun in Courtyard (1960), Jacques Lowe, Georgetown University
While these photographers were clearly picking up on the changing nature of nuns, they are not passive actors in art. In the Medieval times, nuns also participated in illuminating manuscripts like their male monk counterparts. These illuminations by nuns for nuns are called Nonnenarbeiten (German: Nun’s Work). In Spain, nuns could waive their dowry to the convent if they were accomplished musicians or artists as they were seen as receiving help from God.20 Moreover, even today Nuns are aware of the visual power of their habit. Research at Georgetown University shows that orders that have retained the traditional habits are attracting three times more women than orders that do not wear the habit.21 Photojournalists like Ilse Bing and Henri Cartier-Bresson were tuning into to this unique opportunity to photograph the changing world for nuns. The Queen of Leica was given a unique opportunity at the beginning of the nuns awakening to the world. Her status as a woman allowed her access to the way nuns were adapting to the twentieth century. In the wake of World War Two, Henri Cartier-Bresson and his contemporaries were finally allowed to engage in the visual language of nuns. These photographs document the moments of a dying habit on the eve of the Second Vatican Council.
Bibliography
Bing, Ilse. Ilse Bing: La Reine Du Leica. Paris: Millon Cornette De Saint Cyr, 2009.
Dryansky, Larisa, and Edwynn Houk. Ilse Bing: Photography through the Looking Glass. New York: Abrams, 2006.
Fialka, John J. Sisters : Catholic Nuns and the Making of America 1st ed. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2003.
Galassi, Peter, and Henri Cartier-Bresson. Henri Cartier-Bresson: The Early Work. New York, NY: Museum of Modern Art, 1993.
Henri Cartier-Bresson Collector’s ed. New York: Arthouse Films, 2010.
Jacobs, Philip Walker. The Life and Photography of Doris Ulmann. Lexington, KY: Univ. Press of Kentucky, 2001.
Lahs-Gonzales, Olivia, Lucy R. Lippard, and Martha A. Sandweiss. Defining Eye: Women Photographers of the 20th Century: Selections from the Helen Kornblum Collection. St. Louis, MO: Saint Louis Art Museum, 1997.
McNamara, Patrick. “The Nuns of the American Civil War.” Aleteia – Catholic Spirituality, Lifestyle, World News, and Culture. September 03, 2017. Accessed January 11, 2019.https://aleteia.org/2017/09/03/the-nuns-of-the-american-civil-war/.
Reed, Cheryl L. Unveiled : the Hidden Lives of Nuns 1st ed. New York: Berkley Books, 2004.
Taggard, Mindy Nancarrow. “Art and Alienation in Early Modern Spanish Convents.” South Atlantic Review 65, no. 1 (2000): 24-40. doi:10.2307/3201923.
Sullivan, Rebecca. Visual Habits: Nuns, Feminism, And American Postwar Popular Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/georgetown/detail.action?docID=4672230.
Foot Notes
1. Ulmann, Doris. Doris Ulmann: Photographs from the J. Paul Getty Museum. Malibu, CA: Museum, 1996.
2. Reed, Cheryl L. Unveiled : the Hidden Lives of Nuns 1st ed. New York: Berkley Books, 2004, 63.
3. Reed, Cheryl L. Unveiled : the Hidden Lives of Nuns 1st ed. New York: Berkley Books, 2004, 64.
4. Patrick McNamara, “The Nuns of the American Civil War,” Aleteia – Catholic Spirituality, Lifestyle, World News, and Culture, September 03, 2017, accessed January 11, 2019, https://aleteia.org/2017/09/03/the-nuns-of-the-american-civil-war/.
5. Fialka, John J. Sisters : Catholic Nuns and the Making of America 1st ed. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2003.
6. Larisa Dryansky and Edwynn Houk, Ilse Bing: Photography through the Looking Glass (New York: Abrams, 2006), 11.6
7. Ilse Bing, Ilse Bing: La Reine Du Leica (Paris: Millon Cornette De Saint Cyr, 2009), 8.7
8. Larisa Dryansky and Edwynn Houk, Ilse Bing: Photography through the Looking Glass (New York: Abrams, 2006), 15.8
9. Olivia Lahs-Gonzales, Lucy R. Lippard, and Martha A. Sandweiss, Defining Eye: Women Photographers of the 20th Century: Selections from the Helen Kornblum Collection (St. Louis, MO: Saint Louis Art Museum, 1997), 35.9
10. Reed, Cheryl L. Unveiled : the Hidden Lives of Nuns 1st ed. New York: Berkley Books, 2004, 11.
11. Ilse Bing, Ilse Bing: La Reine Du Leica (Paris: Millon Cornette De Saint Cyr, 2009), 8.
12. Larisa Dryansky and Edwynn Houk, Ilse Bing: Photography through the Looking Glass (New York: Abrams, 2006), 31.
13. Larisa Dryansky and Edwynn Houk, Ilse Bing: Photography through the Looking Glass (New York: Abrams, 2006), 32.
14. Doris Ulmann, Doris Ulmann: Photographs from the J. Paul Getty Museum (Malibu, CA: Museum, 1996), 5.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid, 34.
17. Philip Walker. Jacobs, The Life and Photography of Doris Ulmann (Lexington, KY: Univ. Press of Kentucky, 2001), 93.
18. Peter Galassi and Henri Cartier-Bresson, Henri Cartier-Bresson: The Early Work (New York, NY: Museum of Modern Art, 1993), 10.
19. Henri Cartier-Bresson Collector’s ed. New York: Arthouse Films, 2010.
20. Rebecca Sullivan, Visual Habits: Nuns, Feminism, And American Postwar Popular Culture, University of Toronto Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/georgetown/detail.action?docID=4672230.
21. Mindy Nancarrow, Taggard “Art and Alienation in Early Modern Spanish Convents.” South Atlantic Review 65, no. 1 (2000): 24-40. doi:10.2307/3201923.
22. Reed, Cheryl L. Unveiled : the Hidden Lives of Nuns 1st ed. New York: Berkley Books, 2004, 65.
